Course 3: Rust Language

Advanced types Compound and collection types

Pierre Cochard, Tanguy Risset

'Tuples' are fixed-size collections of arbitrary-typed values, they are defined with the (Type, Type, ...) syntax:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Explicit type:
let mut tup: (i32, i32, f32, &str) = (31, 16, 47.27, "hello!"); 

// Inferred type:
let mut tup = (31, 16, 47.27, "hello!"); 
}

Accessing individual values within a Tuple can be done by either:

• referring to its index
• destructuring the tuple and bind it to individually-named variables:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut tup = (31, 16, 47.27, "hello!"); 

// Access by index:
tup.0 = 22;
tup.3 = "world!";

// 'Destructuring' a tuple:
let (t0, t1, t2, t3) = tup;
println!("y = ({t0}, {t2})");
}

'Tuples' are stored on the stack unless Box<...> is explicitely used.

let mut tup = (31, 16, 47.27, "hello!"); 

// The function's prototype (to be implemented):
fn mul2(t: &mut f32);

mul2(...);

assert!(tup == (31, 16, 94.54, "hello!"));

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut tup = (31, 16, 47.27, "hello!"); 

fn mul2(t: &mut f32) {
    *t += *t;
}

mul2(&mut tup.2);
assert!(tup == (31, 16, 94.54, "hello!"));
}

Tuples can be conviently used in a function in order to return multiple values, which can then be assigned to distinct variables in a same expression:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// A function returning a pair of signed integers:
fn return_tuple(x: i32) -> (i32, i32) {
    return (x+1, x+2);
}

// Calling a function, and storing its result:
let y: (i32, i32) = return_tuple(8);
println!("y = {:?}", y);
println!("y = ({:?}, {:?})", y.0, y.1);

// Passing a tuple as an argument to a function:
fn print_tuple(x: &(i32, i32)) {
    println!("x = ({:?}, {:?})", x.0, x.1);
}

print_tuple(&y);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// The function prototype to be implemented:
fn swap(tup: &mut(i32, i32));

let mut x = (31, 27);
swap(&mut x);

assert!(x == (27, 31));
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
fn swap(tup: &mut(i32, i32)) {
    *tup = (tup.1, tup.0);
}

let mut x = (31, 27);
swap(&mut x);

assert!(x == (27, 31));
}

Arrays are fixed-size groups of values of the same type, and can be defined in Rust with the syntax:

• [Subtype; Length], for instance [i32; 10]

Arrays can be defined and initialized to a specific value in a single statement. They cannot be used without being initialized before.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Explicit type:
let a: [i32; 3] = [31, 16, 47];

// Inferred type:
let b = [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]; // #[i32; 5]

// Create and zero-initialize an array:
let mut a: [usize; 10] = [0; 10];
// same as:
let mut a = [0 as usize; 10];
// same as:
let mut a = [0usize; 10];

// Writing at a specific index:
// Note: in Rust, as in C, array indices start at 0
a[0] = 2;
println!("a[0] = {}", a[0]);
}

'Arrays' are stored on the stack unless Box<...> is explicitely used.

As in most programming languages, multidimensional/nested arrays are also supported in rust, and can be declared as follows:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// 2-dimensional array, 2 arrays of `i32` with a length of 10 each:
let mut multi_array = [[0 as i32; 10]; 2];
[...]
multi_array[0][0] = 1;
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let a1 = [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)];
let a2 = [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, (6, 7))];
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let a1: [(i32, i32); 3] = [(1, 2), (3, 4), (5, 6)];
}

Arrays are convenient for storing and processing a set of contiguous data on the stack, for instance through the use of loops, ranges and iterators.

A range represents an interval of values between a start and an end point. In rust, they can be conveniently used with the start..end construct (here excluding the end value), or with start..=end (here including the end value).

let a = 0..10;
let b = 1..=10;

// 'a' range:
assert!(a.contains(&0));
assert!(!a.contains(&10));

// 'b' range:
assert!(!b.contains(&0));
assert!(b.contains(&10)); 

// The 'a' and 'b' ranges have the same number of elements:
assert_eq!(a.count(), b.count());

Iterators allow to go through an array, a range or a collection, and access each element one-by-one.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let r = 0..10;
// Iterate over a range:
for n in r.into_iter() {
    print!("{n} ");
    // -> 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
}
println!();

// Iterate over an array:
let mut a = [0; 10];

// Basic for-loop iteration:
for x in a {
    println!("{x}");
}
// From a 'range':
for n in (0 .. a.len()) {
    println!("{}", a[n]);
}
// As mutable, changing the values of the array:
for x in &mut a {
    *x += 1;
}
// Equivalent to (using a 'closure'):
a.iter_mut().for_each(|x| *x += 1 );

// Iterate with both element and index:
for (i, x) in a.iter_mut().enumerate() {
    *x += i;
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut multi_array = [[0 as i32; 10]; 2];

// The following must be true:
assert_eq!(multi_array, [
    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
    [10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
]);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut multi_array = [[0 as i32; 10]; 2];
for n in 1..=10 {
    multi_array[0][n-1] = n as i32;
}
for n in (1..=10).rev() {
    multi_array[1][10-n] = n as i32;
}
// The resulting 2D-array
assert_eq!(multi_array, [
    [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10],
    [10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1]
]);
}

'Vectors' are a collection of multiple values of a same type stored on the heap. Unlike arrays, they have a dynamic size: they can grow, or shrink.

A Vec object has ownership over the data located in its underlying heap-allocated buffer, which means that the buffer will be deallocated whenever the owning object goes out of scope.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// The easiest way to create a vector is to use the 'vec!()' macro:
let mut v = vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]; // Vec<i32>
println!("Value: {:?}", v);

// 'Pushing' (appending) a new value at the end:
v.push(6);
println!("Value: {:?}", v);

// 'Popping' (removing) its last value:
let last = v.pop();
println!("Last value: {:?}, Vector: {:?}", last, v);

// removing value at index i:
v.remove(i)
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut v0: Vec<i32> = vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4];
// get a pointer to the underlying heap memory buffer:
let v0_ptr: *const i32 = v0.as_ptr();

// Create another vec 'v1' from 'v0', and get its heap pointer again:
// i.e. move v0 to v1
let mut v1: Vec<i32> = v0;
let v1_ptr = v1.as_ptr();

// Create another vec 'v2' from 'v1'using clone():
let mut v2: Vec<i32> = v1.clone();
let v2_ptr = v2.as_ptr();
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Assertion A: the address of pointer 'v0' is the same as pointer 'v1'
assert_eq!(v0_ptr.addr(), v1_ptr.addr());

// Assertion B: the address of pointer 'v1' is the same as pointer 'v2'
assert_eq!(v1_ptr.addr(), v2_ptr.addr());

// Assertion C: the address of pointer 'v0' is the same as pointer 'v2'
assert_eq!(v0_ptr.addr(), v2_ptr.addr());
}

Iterating over a vector is the exact same process as for an array (most operations are inter-compatible!).

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Initializing from a range and iterator:
let mut v = Vec::from_iter((0..6).map(|i| i+1 ));
println!("Value: {:?}", v);

// Iterate/increment:
for x in &mut v {
    *x += 1;
}
println!("Value: {:?}", v);
// General operations:
v.rotate_left(1);
println!("Value: {:?}", v);
// etc.
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut v = vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let mut a = [0; 6];

(...)

assert_eq!(v, vec![]);
assert_eq!(a, [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut v = vec![0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let mut a = [0; 6];

for n in (0..v.len()) {
    a[n] = v.pop().unwrap();
}
assert_eq!(v, vec![]);
assert_eq!(a, [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]);
}

HashMap are heap-allocated collections of same-type values indexed by a unique key. Like vectors, they can grow, or shrink. They make a convenient choice for representing indexes, dictionaries, or any other type of database-like objects:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Unlike Vec, the HashMap data structure need to be explicitly included!
use std::collections::HashMap;

// Inferred type:
let mut departments = HashMap::new(); // HashMap<i32, str>
departments.insert(85, "Vendée");
departments.insert(31, "Haute-Garonne");
departments.insert(44, "Loire-Atlantique");

// We use the ampersand(&) and the key (&1) as the argument 
// because [..] returns us a reference of the value. It is not 
//the actual value in the HashMap.
let d31 = departments[&31];
assert_eq!(d31, "Haute-Garonne");

// Removing a key:
departments.remove(&85);

// Iterating over all values:
for department in departments {
    // We get a tuple!
    println!("Key: {}, Value: {}", department.0, department.1);
}
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::collections::BTreeMap;

let vec = vec![
    ("Y. Horigome", 281),
    ("N. Huston", 279),
    ("M. Dell", 153),
    ("J. Eaton", 281),
    ("S. Shirai", 278),
    ("K. Hoefler", 270),
    ("C. Russell", 211),
    ("R. Tury", 273),
];

let mut map = BTreeMap::new();

[...]

for score in map {
    println!("{:?}", score);
}
}

(153, ["M. Dell"])
(211, ["C. Russell"])
(270, ["K. Hoefler"])
(273, ["R. Tury"])
(278, ["S. Shirai"])
(279, ["N. Huston"])
(281, ["Y. Horigome", "J. Eaton"])

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::collections::BTreeMap;

let vec = vec![
    ("Y. Horigome", 281),
    ("N. Huston", 279),
    ("M. Dell", 153),
    ("J. Eaton", 281),
    ("S. Shirai", 278),
    ("K. Hoefler", 270),
    ("C. Russell", 211),
    ("R. Tury", 273),
];

let mut map: BTreeMap<i32, Vec<&str>> = BTreeMap::new();
for v in vec {
    map.entry(v.1)
        .or_default()
        .push(v.0);
}
for score in map {
    println!("{:?}", score);
}
}

The str primitive type can be used to represent a string literal:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// String literal:
let s = "Hello, World!";
}

As a literal, a str has a static lifetime which can be also explicitly stated in its type declaration. A static lifetime means that the object is valid throughout the entire duration of the program.

The type &str is usually called a string slice

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Here, the three syntaxes are equivalent:
let s = "Hello, World!"; // Inferred type & lifetime
let s: &str = "Hello, World!"; // Explicit type, inferred lifetime
let s: &'static str = "Hello, World!"; // Explicit type & lifetime
}

Unlike const char* in the C programming language, &str in Rust is not null-terminated, but relies on a slice, which is composed of a pointer and a size in bytes:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s = "Hello, World!";
println!("Pointer: {:?}, Length: {} bytes", s.as_ptr(), s.len());

for (n, char) in s.chars().enumerate() {
    println!("Char {n}: {char}");
}
}

For safety reasons, Rust doesn't allow modifying the actual contents (the characters) of a &str, thus the following does not compile:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s: &mut str = "Hello, World!";
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = "It's not about the bunny      \t"; 

// trim() Returns a string slice with leading and trailing whitespace removed.
let s2 = s1.trim();
println!("{s1}");
println!("Address: {:?}, Length: {}", s1.as_ptr(), s1.len());
println!();
println!("{s2}");
println!("Address: {:?}, Length: {}", s2.as_ptr(), s2.len());
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = "     It's not about the bunny      \t"; 
let s2 = s1.trim();
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s1 = "     It's not about the bunny      \t"; 
let s2 = s1.trim();

// s2 pointer address minus 5 (removing the whitespaces) is equal to s1 pointer's address
assert_eq!(s2.as_ptr().addr()-5, s1.as_ptr().addr());
}

A String, on the other hand, is a standard library collection type that can be basically seen as a vector of char, dynamically stored on the heap. Just like a Vec, it can grow, shrink, and has ownership over its own underlying buffer, which makes it an easier object to manipulate. While it inherits all of the str methods, it does not have a static lifetime.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Create from a string literal:
let mut s = String::from("Owls are not what they seem");

// Append a 'char':
s.push('!');
println!("Value: {:?}", s);

// Append another string:
s.push_str(" Really?");
println!("Value: {:?}", s);

// Other ways of appending to the String:
s = s + " Yes, ";
s += "really!";

// Iterate over every 'char'
for c in s.chars() {
    print!("{c} ");
}
println!("");

// Example of transformation:
s = s.chars().rev().collect();

println!("Value: {:?}", s);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s0: &str = "That gum you like is going to come back in style";

// Build a 'String' object from the previous '&str':
let mut s1: String = String::from(s0);

// Now modify 'string':
s1 = s1.to_ascii_uppercase();
println!("{s1}");

}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let s0: &str = "That gum you like is going to come back in style";

// Build a 'String' object from the previous '&str':
let mut s1: String = String::from(s0);
let s2: &str = s1.as_str();
}

A slice in rust can be considered as a bounded pointer or reference to a contiguous sequence of elements in an array, a collection, or a string of characters, as we saw earlier. It is declared with the &[T] syntax. Since it works like a reference, it does not have ownership over its contents.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
// Create a byte buffer:
let mut buffer = [0 as u8; 16];

// Get a slice on half the buffer:
// (notice how the slice itself is not mutable, 
// but instead points to a mutable sequence in the buffer)
let slice: &mut[u8] = &mut buffer[0..8]; // we use the 'range syntax' here to capture the slice

// Iterate on the slice to change values:
for (i, n) in slice.iter_mut().enumerate() {
    *n = i as u8;
}
println!("{:?}", buffer);
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut string = String::from("YOU REMIND ME TODAY OF A SMALL MEXICAN CHIHUAHUA");

let slice = ...;

slice.make_ascii_lowercase();

println!("{string}");
}

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
let mut string = String::from("YOU REMIND ME TODAY OF A SMALL MEXICAN CHIHUAHUA");

let slice = &mut string[25..];

slice.make_ascii_lowercase();

println!("{string}");
}